Aesthetic Theory of Emotions, Desires & Pleasures
साहित्य संगीत कला विहीनः साक्षात् पशुः पुच्छ विषाण हीनः । तृणं न खादन्नपि जीवमानः तद् भागधेयं परमं पशूणाम् ॥ Sāhitya saṃgīta kalā vihīnaḥ sākṣāt paśuḥ pucha viṣāṇa hīnaḥ | Tṛṇaṃ na khādannapi jīvamānaḥ tad bhāgadheyaṃ paramaṃ paṣūṇām ||
Meaning: A person without literature, music, or art is like an animal without a tail or horns, and it is a great piece of luck for real animals that such a person does not eat grass to survive. This verse attributed to Bhartrihari from his classic Sanskrit work, Niti Shatakam dates back to c. 5th to 6th [c. 450–510 CE].
For 1500 years starting from 300 CE, India was at the forefront of debating, contemplating and theorizing aesthetics. Captured in Rasa Theory, these aesthetic theories foreground every Indian classical art form, be it dance, music, literature, sculpture or painting.
"Rasa" roughly translates to "taste/emotional flavor". Initially there were only 8 Rasas mentioned by Bharata Muni in his Natya Shastra. The ninth rasa, Shanta, was added in by Abhinavgupta, a Kashmiri philosopher in 10th -11th centuries. However, many scholars like Dr. Nagaswamy would argue that Rasa is only one — the ultimate enjoyment from an aesthetic experience. So let's deep-dive into Rasa.
Deep-Dive
One day, the sages asked Bharata Muni to explain the concept of Aesthetic Emotions. They requested him to answer 5 questions:
The Origin/Attainment of Rasa: How do sentiments get their qualities?
The Nomenclature of Bhāva: Why are they called bhāvas (Psychological States)?
The Function of Bhāva: Why do they make us feel (bhāvayanti)?
The Definition of Structure: What is a Digest (saṃgraha) and a Memorial Verse (kārikā)?
The Definition of Meaning: What is Etymology (nirukta)?
Here, Digest, Memorial Verse and Etymology refer to 3 ways by which knowledge from the treaties can be explained.
Digest (Samgraha): A compressed summary or collection that brings together detailed subjects from treatises and their commentaries (bhasyas) into a unified overview.
Memorial Verse (Karika): A concise, rule-based verse or statement crafted with a minimum number of words (sūtra-style) to clearly convey the essential meaning of a complex rule or concept.
Etymology (Nirukta): The analysis of the root meaning, linguistic origin, and grammatical derivation of nouns, supported by dictionaries and rules of interpretation to explain why a word carries its specific meaning
The Digest deals with Sentiments, Psychological States, Histrionic Representation, Practices (dharmī), Styles (vṛtti), Local Usages (pravṛtti), Success (siddhi), Notes (svara), Instrumental music (ātodya), Songs and the Stage.
1. The Sentiments (Rasa)
The ultimate aesthetic flavor or emotional experience evoked in the audience. The text originally outlines eight primary Rasas, such as Love (Śṛṅgāra), Humor (Hāsya), Sorrow (Karuṇa), and Heroism (Vīra).
2. The Psychological States (Bhāva)
The internal emotional states felt and expressed by the actors to generate the Rasas. These include dominant emotions (sthāyibhāva), transient or fleeting moods (vyabhicāribhāva), and involuntary physical reactions like sweating or trembling (sāttvikabhāva).
3. The Histrionic Representation (Abhinaya)
Histrionic representation refers to the behavioral pattern of displaying excessive, superficial emotionality and dramatic theatricality to capture the attention of others. The physical techniques of acting and communication. The Nāṭyaśāstra divides this into four modes: bodily gestures (āṅgika), spoken words (vācika), costumes and makeup (āhārya), and deep internal emotional state (sāttvika).
4. The Practices (Dharmī)
The foundational modes of theatrical presentation. It splits into two types:
• Lokadharmī: Realistic, lifelike representations of daily human behavior.
• Nāṭyadharmī: Conventional, stylized, and highly theatrical presentations (such as symbolic gestures or imaginary props).
5. The Styles (Vṛtti)
The overarching dramatic style or texture of the play. There are four primary styles: the Verbal style (bhāratī), the Grand style (sāttvatī), the Graceful/Dance style (kaiśikī), and the Energetic style (ārabhaṭī).
6. Local Usages (Pravṛtti)
Regional preferences, trends, or costumes. It accounts for how performance styles naturally vary across different regions of India.
7. Success (Siddhi)
The ultimate fulfillment of the performance. It can be human success (mānuṣī), which is marked by audience applause and praise, or divine success (daivikī), achieved when the performance is flawlessly executed without interruptions or technical failures.
8. The Notes (Svara)
The foundational musical tones. This covers the system of the seven primary musical notes (sapta svara—Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni), which form the basis of the music accompanying the performance.
9. The Instrumental Music (Ātodya)
The classification and usage of musical instruments. The text details four categories: stringed (tata), hollow/wind (suṣira), solid percussion like cymbals (ghana), and covered percussion like drums (avanaddha).
10. Songs (Gāna)
The vocal compositions integrated into the performance. It specifically looks at Dhruva songs, which are structured theatrical songs used to establish a scene, introduce a character, or shift emotional focus.
11. The Stage (Raṅga)
The physical performance environment. This encompasses the architectural layout, geometry, acoustics, and spiritual consecration of the theater and stage itself.
When a rule (lit. meaning) is explained (lit. uttered) briefly in a Sūtra with a minimum (lit. small) number of words, it is called the Memorial Verse which shows the meaning [of the rule clearly]. Etymology is the definitive meaning which arises in connexion with various nouns, is helped by dictionaries (lit. vocabularies), and the rules of grammatical interpretation, includes the significance of the root involved as well as the reasons modifying it, and is helped by various findings [of Śāstras], and this meaning [of a noun] is established [mainly] from a consideration of its root [and pratyaya or affix].
Formation of Rasa
In Indian philosophy, Rasa refers to the resultant sentiment that came from enjoyment of aesthetic appeal. As mentioned, earlier there were 8 Rasas with the ninth added to the list in the 12th century. Rasa is informed by 4 major factors:
Vibhava (Determinants/Causes): The root causes or catalysts (such as characters, objects, or environmental settings) that awaken the emotions
Anubhava (Consequents/Physical reactions): The outward physical reactions, gestures, and expressions (such as smiling, weeping, or glancing) that communicate the emotion to the audience.
Sattvika bhava (Involuntary/Temperamental states): The 8 involuntary physical responses born of deep mental concentration. These include:
Stambha: Becoming completely stunned or standing still like a pillar.
Sveda: Sweating or perspiration.
Romancha: Experiencing goosebumps or horripilation.
Svara Bheda: Faltering or breaking of the voice, making it hard to speak.
Kampa: Shaking or trembling of the body.
Vaivarnya: Changing or losing of normal bodily color (paleness/flushing).
Ashrupata: Shedding tears of pure joy and love.
Pralay (or Murchha): Total absorption or a state of divine devastation resulting in temporary unconsciousness or stillness.
Vyabhicaribhava (Complementary Psychological States): The 33 fleeting, secondary emotions (such as anxiety, joy, or shame) that rise and dissolve to enrich the core feeling. These include:
Nirveda – Indifference or self-disparagement
Vishada – Moroseness or despondency
Dainya – Meekness or abject humility
Glani – A feeling of weakness or being in a faulty position
Shrama – Fatigue or weariness
Mada – Intoxication or madness
Garva – Pride or arrogance
Shanka – Doubt or apprehension
Trasa – Shock or fright
Avega – Intense emotion or impulse
Unmada – Craziness or insanity
Apasmara – Forgetfulness or epilepsy
Vyadhi – Disease or sickness
Moha – Bewilderment or loss of consciousness
Mriti – Death
Alasya – Laziness or indolence
Jadya – Stupor or invalidity
Vrida – Shame or shyness
Avahittha – Concealment of feelings
Smriti – Remembrance
Vitarka – Argument, deliberation, or doubt
Chinta – Contemplation or anxiety
Mati – Attention or determination/understanding
Dhrti – Forbearance or calmness
Harsha – Jubilation or delight
Autsukya – Eagerness or solicitude
Augrya – Violence, cruelty, or ferocity
Amarsha – Anger, indignation, or impatience
Asuya – Jealousy or envy
Chapalya – Impudence or fickleness
Nidra – Sleep
Supti – Deep sleep or dreaming
Prabodha (or Bodha) – Awakening
These 4 factors are anchored by Sthayi Bhava (Durable Psychological States). These include:
STHAYI BHAVA (Perm. Emotion) | MEANING | RASA (Aesthetic Sentiment) |
RATI | Love/Lust/Pleasure | SHRINGARA (Erotic/Romantic) |
HASA | Joy/Laughter | HASYA [Humorous] |
SHOKA | Sorrow/Grief | KARUNA [Pity/Compassion] |
KRODHA | Anger/Rage | RAUDRA [Furious] |
UTSAHA | Valor | VEERA [Heroic] |
BHAYA | Fear/Dread | BHAYANAKA [Fearful] |
JUGUPSA | Disgust/Aversion | BIBHATSA [Revulsion] |
VISMAYA | Astonishment | ADBHUTA [Curiosity/Wonder] |
SHAMA | Peace | SHANTA [Serenity/Tranquility] |
Essentially, Sthayi Bhava are the building blocks or the raw material to make Rasa. The Vibhava, Anubhava, Sattvika Bhava and Vyabhicari Bhava refers to the spices and the cooking process employed to create this Rasa. The key difference between Bhava (Emotions) and Rasa (Emotional Flavor) is that Bhava is felt by the character and Rasa is felt by the audience. Rasa theory is rooted in aesthetic experiences. Even if the Rasa felt is Sringara (erotic/romantic emotions) one has to note that this is in fact an aesthetic experience and not sexual intimacy.
Moreover, there are 4 types of Histrionic Representations:
Gestures (āṅgika)
Words (vācika)
Dresses and Make-up (āhārya)
Representation of the Sattva (sāttvika)
Practice of representation (dharmī) however are two-fold: realistic (lokadharmī, lit. popular) and coventional (nāṭyadharmī, lit. theatrical). This may occur in 4 styles: Verbal (bhāratī), the Grand (sāttvatī), the Graceful (kaiśikī) and the Energetic (ārabhaṭī). These practices vary by region as well and can be broadly classified into 4 regions: Āvanti (Western & Central Indian), Dākṣinātyā (South Indian), Oḍramāgadhī (East Indian) and Pañcālamadhyamā (North Indian).
Finally in reception of the aesthetic experience, the fulfillment (siddhi) can be experienced through two routes:
Human (Mānuṣī): Aesthetic fulfillment arises from tangible human actions, skill, and overt audience reactions. It is marked by immediate, visible, and audible expressions of delight from the spectators—such as smiles, laughter, clapping, cheering, standing up, or physical signs of emotion like horripulation (pulaka).
Divine (Daivikī / Daivī): Aesthetic fulfillment arises from a transcendent level of sentiment characterized by a deep, silent, and undisturbed communion between the art and the audience. It occurs when the performance features an intense and luminous display of sattva (pure emotional/spiritual presence) and clearly communicates the psychological states (bhāva).
Natyashastra also treats the human voice as an instrument classifying it as (śārirā) alongside (vaiṇava, non-human instruments). An interesting mention of Dhruva, a versified stage-song makes a mention in verses 29-30 of Chapter VI. Here we see the stage used to platform the Dhruva, and the surrounding space meant for the audience, referenced as a Playhouse which could be designed as an oblong, square or a triangular space.
विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद्रसनिष्पत्तिः|| Vibhavanubhav-Vyabhichari-Samyogat-Rasanishpattih||
Coming back to Rasa, Bharata Muni speaks of sentiment being produced (rasa-niṣpattiḥ) through a combination (saṃyoga) of Determinants (vibhāva), Consequents (anubhāva) and Complementary Psychological States (vyabhicāri-bhāva). If one were to draw parallel between tasting a food and Rasa, one can state that how combining various spices, vegetables, create different tastes, similarly, Durable Psychological States (sthāyibhāva), when combined with various other Psychological States, attain the quality of a Rasa/Sentiment (i.e. become Sentiment).
What makes something a Rasa?
It can be tasted (āsvādyate).
How is Rasa tasted?
Akin to people attaining pleasure and satisfaction from eating food cooked with various spices, "cultured people taste the Durable Psychological States while they see them represented by an expression of the various Psychological States with Words, Gestures and the Sattva, and derive pleasure and satisfaction."
Just as connoisseur of cooked food (bhakta) while eating food which has been prepared from various spices and other articles taste it, so the learned people taste in their heart (manas) the Durable Psychological States (such as love, sorrow etc.) when they are represented by an expression of the Psychological States with Gestures. Hence these Durable Psychological States in a drama are called Sentiments,
The Rasa theory was predominantly developed as a Theater Philosophy to be adopted by performers be it actors, dancers or singers to elicit a Rasa in the audience. While, said productions do evoke strong emotions, sometimes so strong that they overpower an individual, Rasa is still said to fall within the realm of theatrical aesthetics.
When the theory was developed, the mode of production was mostly theatrical. There existed a stage or a clearing around which audience could gather and be entertained. However, in our modern world, one can argue perhaps that Rasa can be experienced through mass media productions like TV or movies. For emotions experienced when watching movies, series or any performance online cannot completely be ignored, and often appear to be overwhelming in nature, just like the Rasa produced during a theatrical performance. So when speaking of overwhelming emotions, perhaps even in the range of Fictophilia, one can argue that Rasa is being produced. The only difference being the mode through which Rasa is engineered: theater in the 5th or 6th centuries and mass media in the 20th and 21st centuries.